UNIT VII: INFINITIVES, GERUNDS, PRESENT PARTICIPLES, AND THAT-CLAUSES

UNIT VII: INFINITIVES, GERUNDS, PRESENT PARTICIPLES, AND THAT-CLAUSES

VII.1. INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO The infinitive is used without to in several different cases.

1. Modal auxiliary verbs

After the modal auxiliary verbs will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, and must, we use the infinitive without to. It is also used after the expressions would rather and had better, and after need and dare when they are used as auxiliary verbs.

I must go now.
Can you help me?
I’d rather go alone.
You’d better see what she wants. Need I do the washing up?
How dare you call me a liar.

After ought, used, be and have, the to-infinitive is used. 2. Let, make, hear, etc

Certain verbs are followed by an object and the infinitive without to. They are: let, make, see, hear, feel, watch, notice, help (in an informal style).

She lets her children stay up very late. I made them give me the money back. I didn’t see you come in.
I heard her say that she was fed up. Did you feel the earth move?

Could you help me unload the car?

When these verbs are used in the passive, they are followed by the to-infinitive.

He was made to pay back the money. She was heard to say that she disagreed.

VII.2. INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE

In older English, an infinitive subject could easily be put at the beginning of a sentence, like any other subject.

To err is human, to forgive divine. (Pope)

In modern English, it is more common to begin the sentence with it (‘preparatory subject’), and to put the infinitive later.

It’s easy to make mistakes. (Instead of To make mistakes is easy.) It was impossible to explain what I meant.

An -ing form is often used instead of an infinitive as the subject of a sentence, particularly when we are talking about an activity in general. The -ing form can be put at the beginning of a sentence.

Selling insurance is a pretty boring job.

But if we are talking about one particular action, the infinitive is more usual.

It was difficult to sell my car.

VII.3. INFINITIVE AFTER VERB

It is very common for one verb to be followed directly by another. This happens, for instance, if we talk about our attitude to an action: the first verb describes the attitude, and the second refers to the action.

I enjoy playing cards. I hope to see you soon.

In some of these cases, the second verb is the infinitive; in others, the -ing form is used. The choice depends on the first verb. For instance, hope can be followed by an infinitive (or by a that-clause); enjoy is always followed by an -ing form. Some verbs (eg try, remember) can be followed either by an infinitive or by an -ing form, with a difference of meaning. Some verbs (eg think) cannot be followed directly by another verb.

In order to know what structures are possible after a particular verb, you should consult a good dictionary. The commonest verbs which are followed directly by an infinitive are:

afford fail agree forget appear happen arrange hate ask help attempt hesitate bear hope beg intend begin learn care like choose love consent manage dare mean decide neglect determine offer expect prefer

prepare pretend promise propose refuse regret remember seem start swear trouble try

want wish

Some of these verbs can also be followed by the -ing form, often with a different meaning.
Some of these verbs, and a number of others, can be used in the construction verb + object + infinitive

(for example, I wanted her to come back early).
Note that these verbs are all followed by an infinitive with to (except sometimes dare).

VII.4. VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE

Want, allow, and some other verbs are normally used with an object and an infinitive.

She didn’t want me to go. (Not: *…that I go.) They don’t allow people to smoke.
I didn’t ask you to pay for the meal.

The following list contains the commonest verbs which are used in this construction. Many of them can also be used in other constructions (for instance, with an -ing form or a that-clause); for detailed information about each verb you should consult a dictionary.

advise allow
ask
bear
beg
cause command compel encourage expect forbid force

get

hate help instruct intend invite leave like mean need oblige order permit persuade

prefer press recommend request remind teach

tell tempt trouble want warn wish

suppose and feel can be followed by object + infinitive, but the structure is rather literary and not very common (though it is more frequent in the passive). These verbs are more

often used with a that-clause.
I thought him to be an excellent choice. (More normal: I thought that he was…)

She was believed to have taken part in activities. (Or: It was believed that she had taken part…) There are some common verbs that cannot be used in the structure verb + infinitive; for instance, suggest.

I suggested that she (should) go home. or I suggested her going home.

VII.5. INFINITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVE

* Many adjectives can be followed by infinitives. The combination adjective + infinitives can express various meanings, depending on which adjective is used.

A) After it is / was + adjective + of you / him etc. It is good of you to help me.

It is stupid of him to smoke so much
careless, clever, brave, wise, king, good, nice, honest, generous, cowardly, selfish, silly, wicked etc. can

also be used in this way.
B) After it / that + is / was/would be + adjective + noun.

That’s a stupid place to park a car. That would be a very rude thing to say. It was a queer time to choose.

Think, believe, consider, know, fine, imagine,

Adjectives in A above can be used here, and also strange, crazy, mad, odd, funny (= odd), extraordinary, astonishing, amazing, pointless, ridiculous etc.

Comments of this type can also be expressed as exclamations.

What a terrible night to be out in! What a funny name to give a dog! What an odd place to have a picnic!

C) After adjectives expressing emotions

I was delighted to see him.
He’ll be angry to find that nothing has been done. I’m sorry to say I can’t find your keys anywhere.

Other adjectives of this type are happy, glad, relieved, astonished, amazed, surprised, horrified, disgusted, disappointed, sad.

D) it is / was + adjective can also be followed by an infinitive in such sentences as:

It is lovely to see so much open country.
It was dreadful to find oneself alone in such a place.
It is easy to talk; you haven’t got to make a decision.
It is easy for you to talk; you haven’t got to make a decision.

E) An infinitive is often placed after the adjectives easy, hard, difficult, awkward, impossible, etc.:

The book is easy to read.
This car is hard to park.
Some questions are awkward to answer. His actions are impossible to justify.

F) apt, anxious, bound, due, inclined, liable, prepared, ready, reluctant, unwilling, willing can be followed by an infinitive.

Heisboundtowin=Heissuretowin/ Iamsurethathewill win. He is reluctant to make any decision.
The train is due to leave in ten minutes.
You are inclined to judge people too hastily.

We are all liable to make mistakes.
I am prepared to help you = I am willing to help you.

* When a verb is used with a preposition, this often comes at the end of the sentence in adjective + infinitive structures.

She’s easy to get on with.
It’s not a bad place to live in.

* Enough and too are often used with an adjective + infinitive construction.

Do you think the water’s warm enough (for us) to go swimming? My mother’s getting too old to travel.
Would you be kind enough to open the window?

VII.6. FOR + OBJECT + INFINITIVE

* After certain adjectives, the special structure for + object + infinitive is often used.

It is important for the accounts to be ready by Friday.
It’s unusual for her door to be open – I wonder if something’s wrong. I’m anxious for the party to be a success.

The same meaning could often be expressed with a that-clause (I’m anxious that the party should be a success), but this is usually more formal in style.

This for-structure is used after three kind of adjectives:
A) Adjectives that express importance or urgency, for instance. important, essential, vital, necessary, pointless,

unimportant, unnecessary. The sentence is often introduced by It is. It is essential for the classroom to have plenty of light.

It is pointless for the three of us to go: one will be enough.
B) Adjectives that express frequency, for instance, common, normal, unusual, rare. The It is structure is often used.

It is unusual for foxes to come so close to the town. Do you think it’s normal for a child to get so tired?

C) Adjectives that express personal reactions to the future, for instance, anxious, eager. I’m anxious for the painting to be ready on time.

They say they’ll be delighted for Mary to go and stay. * A for-structure is often used after too and enough.

It’s too heavy for you to lift.
I think it’s late enough for us to put Philip to bed.

* The for-structure can also be used after certain nouns, for instance, plan, idea, suggestion.
Have you heard about the plan for Jack to stand for the Liberals in the General Election?

His idea is for us to travel in two different cars.

VII.7. INFINITIVE AFTER NOUN

Infinitives can often be used directly after nouns in English. This may happen in several ways.

A) Nouns related to verbs: some nouns, like wish, refusal, offer, can be followed by infinitives, just like the related verbs. Compare:

I don’t wish to change. I have no wish to change. He refused to co-operate. His refusal to co-operate…

However, in many cases the verb and the noun are used in different structures.

I intend to go. My intention of going…
I hope to arrive. There’s no hope of arriving…

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B) Other nouns: an infinitive is often used to say what will be done with something, or what effect it will have.

Have you got a key to unlock this door? I need a box to hold my chessmen. Have you anything to cure a bad cold? It was a war to end all wars.

When we are talking in general (and not about a particular action), we can use for + -ing instead of the infinitive, with a similar meaning.

A vase is a kind of pot for holding flowers. ‘What’s that stuff for?’ – ‘Cleaning silver.’

C) When the infinitive is used with a preposition, another structure is possible: preposition + whom / which + infinitive. This is more common in a formal style.

Mary needs a friend to play with. Or: …a friend with whom to play.
He’s looking for a place to live in. Or: …a place in which to live.
I’m looking for something to clean the carpet with. Or: … something with which to clean the carpet.

VII.8. INFINITIVE AFTER INTERROGATIVE CONJUNCTION.

After certain verbs it is possible to use the interrogative conjunctions how, who, where, when or whether with a to-infinitive

I wonder who to invite.
Can you tell me how to get to the station. Show us what to do.
I don’t know whether to answer his letter. Ask my brother where to put the car.
Did you find out when to pay?

The verbs are know, ask, tell, explain, show, wonder, consider, find out, understand, and others with similar meanings.

VII.9. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE.

The infinitive with to is used to talk about people’s purposes, the reasons why they do things.

My brother got a job to earn money for his holiday. He started drinking to forget.
He stopped for a minute to rest.

The same idea can be expressed by using in order to or so as to.

I got up early in order to have time to pack.
We went via Worcester so as to miss the traffic jams. He stopped for a minute in order to rest.

In negative sentences, in order not to or so as not to are used; the infinitive alone is not usually correct.

I’m going to start now, in order not to miss the beginning.

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After come, go, run, hurry up, stay, stop and some other verbs, and can be used instead of an infinitive of purpose.

Come and have a drink. Hurry up and get dressed.

Stay and have dinner.
We ought to stop and think.
Would you go and tell the children to shut up?

VII.10. -ING FORM: TERMINOLOGY
The form of a verb ending in -ing (eg writing, arguing) is sometimes called (a) the present participle and

sometimes (b) the gerund, depending on whether it is used (a) more like a verb or adjective or (b) more like a noun. I sat smoking and wondering what to do. (present participle)

Smoking is bad for you. (gerund)

In fact, the distinction is not really as simple as this, and some grammarians prefer to avoid the terms participle and gerund. Since the purpose of this grammar units is mainly a practical one, we will henceforth avoid making the distinction between gerunds and participles, grouping both grammar concepts under the general denomination of -ing forms.

VII.11. -ING FORM WITH POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE OR ‘S

The possessives my, your etc, and genitives like John’s. can be used with -ing forms. Do you mind my making a suggestion?

I’m annoyed about John’s forgetting to pay.
In informal English it is more common to use forms like me, you, John instead, especially when these

forms are functioning as the grammatical object of the sentence.

Do you mind me making a suggestion? I’m annoyed about John forgetting to pay.

Note that the verbs see, hear, feel, smell are not usually followed by possessive + -ing. I saw him letting out of his car. (Not *I saw his getting…)

VII.12. -ING FORM AFTER A VERB.

When one verb is followed by another, the second verb is not always in the infinitive. You can say I want to travel or I hope to travel, but not *I enjoy to travel. Enjoy is usually followed by the -ing form, and so are quite a number of other verbs. The most common are:

admit appreciate avoid consider

excuse miss face postpone feel like practise finish put off

contemplate delay
deny
detest dislike endure enjoy escape

For example:

forgive resent give up
can’t help imagine involve

leave off mention mind

resist
risk
can’t stand suggest understand

I really appreciate having time to relax.
Have you considered getting a job abroad? Excuse my interrupting…
You mentioned having been in hospital last year.

Prevent is followed by object + (from) + -ing.
There’s nothing to prevent him (from) taking the money. The -ing form is also used in the following cases:

to burst out crying / laughing
to go swimming / shopping
to spend / waste time / money doing something to keep (on) doing something

VII.13. -ING FORM AFTER PREPOSITION
The -ing form is used after all prepositions (including to, when to is a preposition). The infinitive is

impossible in these cases.

You should check the oil before starting the car (Not: …*before to start…) He walked away without looking back. (Not: …*without to look…)
You can’t make an omelette without breaking the eggs
We got the job finished by working sixteen hours a day.

He’s always talking about moving to the country. I look forward to hearing from you.

VII.12. TO + -ING

Sentences like I look forward to hearing from you may seem strange, if you expect the verb in every to + verb structure to be the infinitive. The point is that to is really two different words. One of them is just a sign of the infinitive. (It is used with most infinitives, but is left out in some cases, for example after can or must.)

I want to go home. You can go home alone. The other to is a preposition.
Lawrence has gone to Denmark.
I’m looking forward to Christmas.

Do you object to Sunday work?

I’m not used to London traffic.

When this preposition is followed by a verb, we use the -ing form (as we do after all prepositions).

I’m looking forward to seeing you at Christmas. Do you object to working on Sundays?
I’m not used to driving in London.
I prefer riding to walking.

If you are not sure whether to is a preposition or not, try putting a noun after it. If you can, it is a preposition (and is followed by the -ing form of a verb). Compare:

I’m not used to British traffic conditions.
I’m not used to driving on the left.
I object to music in restaurants.
I object to having loud music playing while I eat.

If to cannot be followed by a noun, it is not a preposition, and -ing is not used. You cannot say *I want to dinner, so you do not say *I want to eating.

Common examples of to + -ing are: look forward to …-ing, object to …-ing, be used to …-ing, in addition to …-ing, be accustomed to …-ing (but be accustomed to + infinitive is also possible).

VII.13. -ING FORM: SPECIAL CASES
Note the use of the -ing form after as, like, than, any / some / no etc good , any / some / no etc use and worth.

As well as getting on everybody’s nerves, he’s got a habit of borrowing money and forgetting to pay it back.
Why don’t you do something useful, like cleaning the flat?
There’s nothing that depresses me more than waking up with a hangover on a wet Monday.

Is it any good trying to explain?
It’s not much use my buying salmon if you don’t like it.
It isn’t worth repairing the car. (= The car isn’t worth repairing)

VII.14. -ING FORM OR INFINITIVE?
Some verbs can be followed by either an -ing form or an infinitive, usually with a difference of meaning.

The most important cases are:

advise
allow attempt hear can’t bear begin continue forbid
forget

go on propose hate regret

remember intend see

like start love stop permit try prefer watch

This is also the case with certain adjectives:

accustomed afraid certain

interested used sorry
sure

* With remember, forget, stop, go on and regret, the difference is connected with time. the -ing form refers to things that happened earlier (before the remembering, forgetting, etc takes place); the infinitive refers to things that happen after the remembering, etc.

1. A)  Remember + -ing = remember what one has done, or what has happened I shall always remember meeting you for the first time.Remember + infinitive = remember what one has to do. Remember to go to the post office, won’t you.
2. B)  Forget + -ing = forget what one has done, or what has happened I shall never forget seeing the Queen.Forget + infinitive = forget what one has to do. She’s always forgetting to give me my letters.
3. C)  Stop + -ing = stop what one is doing, or does. I really must stop smoking.Stop + infinitive = make a break or pause in order to do something. Every half hour I stop work to smoke a cigarette.
4. D)  Go on + -ing = continue what one has been doing.
   How long do you intend to go on playing those bloody records?Go on + infinitive = change, move on to something new.

   He welcomed the new students and then went on to explain the college regulations.

C) Regret + -ing = be sorry for what has happened.
I don’t regret telling her what I thought, even if it upset her.

Regret + infinitive = be sorry for what one is going to say.
I regret to inform you that we are unable to offer you employment.

* With the adjective interested, the -ing form refers to what will (or may) happen, and the infinitive refers to what has happened.

Interested in + -ing = interested by the idea of doing something.
I’m interested in working in Switzerland. Do you know anybody who could help me?

Interested + infinitive = interested by what one learns or experiences.
I was interested to read in the paper that scientists have found out how the universe began.

* Like + -ing = enjoy
I like walking in the rain.

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Like + infinitive = choose to; be in the habit of; think it right to.
I like to get up early so that I can have plenty of work done before lunch. I heard you talking and I didn’t like to disturb you, so I went away.

Note that would like means ‘wish’ or ‘want’, and is always followed by the infinitive. What would you like to do tomorrow? (Not: *What would you like doing tomorrow?)

* With love, hate and prefer there is not much difference between the two structures.

I love lying / to lie on my back and staring / to stare at the sky.
Some people hate working / to work in the early morning. Personally, I prefer working / to work in the morning.

When we are referring to one particular occasion, it is more common to use the infinitive.

Would you like to have lunch now or would you prefer to wait? I’ll love to come and see you some time.
I hate to break things up, but it’s time to go home.
I hate to mention it, but you owe me some money.

‘Can I give you a lift?’ – ‘No, thanks, I prefer to walk.’

* Allow, advise, forbid and permit are followed by an -ing form when there is no personal object. If we say who is allowed, advised, etc, the infinitive is used.

Sorry, we don’t allow smoking in the lecture room.
We don’t allow people to smoke in here.
I wouldn’t advise taking the car – there’s nowhere to park. I wouldn’t advise you to take the car…

* After see, watch and hear, and -ing form suggests that we observe part of a complete action; when we start looking or listening it is already going on. The infinitive is used when we want to suggest that we observe the whole action from beginning to end.

When I walked past his house I heard him practising the violin I heard Oistrakh play the Beethoven violin concerto last week.

When I glanced out of the window I saw Mary crossing the road.
I watched him step off the pavement, cross the road, and disappear into the post-office.

* Try + -ing = make an experiment; do something to see what will happen. I tried sending her flowers but it didn’t have any effect.
Try putting in some more vinegar – that might make it taste a bit better.

Try + infinitive = make an effort; attempt to do something difficult. Please, try to understand.
I once tried to learn Japanese.

* Afraid of + -ing and afraid + infinitive can often both be used with little difference of meaning. I’m afraid to fly / of flying.
I’m afraid to tell / of telling her.

However, when we are talking about things which happen to us unexpectedly, without our wanting or choosing them, only the -ing form is possible.

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I’m afraid of crashing. (Not: *…to crash.)
I don’t like to speak French because I’m afraid of making mistakes. (Not: *…to make…)

Compare:

I’m afraid of diving / to dive into the swimming pool. (= I don’t want to do it.)
I’m afraid of falling into the swimming-pool. (= I don’t want it to happen to me. Here *…to fall is

impossible.)

* Begin and start can be followed by an -ing or infinitive structures, usually with no real difference of meaning. It is perhaps more common to use an -ing form when we are talking about the beginning of a long or habitual activity.

How old were you when you first started playing the piano?
The -ing form is not used after a progressive form of begin or start.
I was beginning to get angry. (Not: *…getting…)
After begin and start, the verbs understand and realize are only used in the infinitive. She began to understand what he really wanted. (Not: *…understanding…)

* After propose, attempt, intend, continue, can’t bear and be accustomed to, both structures are possible with little difference of meaning, but the infinitive is probably more common after propose, attempt and intend.

I can’t bear getting / to get my hands dirty. He intends to double the advertising budget.

* Sorry is used with an infinitive when we apologize for something that we are doing or about to do.

Sorry to disturb you? – Could I speak to you for a moment?

When we apologize for something that we have done, we use a perfect infinitive or for + -ing, or a that-clause.

Sorry to have woken you up yesterday.
I’m sorry for waking you up (or for having woken you up) yesterday. I’m sorry that I woke you up yesterday.

VII.15. CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY THAT

* The that + subject + verb construction is possible after a large number of verbs. Some of the most useful are given below.

admit agree announce appear arrange assume
be afraid be anxious believe command

forget guarantee happen hear

hope imagine imply indicate inform insist

prove realize recognize recommend remark remind resolve reveal

say* see

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confess declare decide demand demonstrate determine
be determined discover estimate expect

know
learn
make out mean
notice observe
occur
order perceive presume pretend warn promise propose

seem show stipulate suggest teach tell think threaten turn out vow

Most of the above verbs can also take another construction (see sections on the infinitive and the -ing form). Note however that a verb + that + subject construction does not necessarily have the same meaning as the same verb + infinitive + -ing.

He saw her sweeping under the beds = He watched her sweeping etc.
but He saw that she swept under the beds could mean either ‘He noticed that she did this’ or ‘He made sure by supervision that she did this.’

The tense of the main verb will affect the tense in the noun that-clause:

fear feel find

wish * And alternatives, eg assure, explain, complain, etc.

I hope I haven’t made a mistake. I promise I will help you.
Tom thinks it’s going to rain.

I hoped that I hadn’t made a mistake. I promised I would help you.

Tom thought it was going to rain. appear, occur, happen, seem requite it as a subject.

It occurred to me that he might be lying.
It turned out that nobody remembered the address. It appears that we have come on the wrong day.

that + subject + should can be used after a number of verbs (see unit III): agree, arrange, be anxious, command, decide, demand, determine, be determined, order, resolve and urge instead of an infinitive construction, and after insist and suggest instead of -ing.

They decided / agreed to put up a statue.
They decided / agreed that a statue should be put up. He suggested offering a reward.
He suggested that a reward should be offered.

* that + subject + verb can be used after be + adjectives expressing feeling: astonished, delighted, glad, relieved etc.

I am delighted that you can come.
He was relieved that no one had been hurt.

* that + subject + verb can also follow an abstract noun such as belief, fact, fear, hope, report, rumour. The rumour that prices were going to rise led to a rush on the shops.

* A that-clause can also be the subject of a sentence. Normally the sentence begins with it + be + adjective / noun.

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It is unfortunate that you were not insured. It is a pity that he didn’t come earlier.